Movable Type is a printing and typography printing system and technology that uses movable components to reproduce document elements (English language, moveable type in English English) usually individual letters or punctuation) usually on paper media.
The world's first mobile printing technology to print paper books is made of porcelain material and was discovered around 1040 in China during the Northern Song Dynasty by the inventor Bi Sheng (990-1051). Later in 1377, the world's oldest moving bergerak cetak cetak cetak cetak cetak cetak,,,, Jikji, was printed in Korea during the Goryeo dynasty. Therefore, the diffusion of the two types of mobile systems is, to some extent, particularly confined to East Asia, although sporadic reports of mobile type technology are brought back to Europe by Christian missionaries, merchants and business people returning to Europe. after working in China for several years and influencing the development of printing technology in Europe. Some of these medieval European accounts are still stored in the archives of the Vatican and Oxford University libraries among many others. Around the year 1450, Johannes Gutenberg introduced a type of metal moving machine in Europe, along with innovations in type casting based on matrix and handprints. A small number of alphabetical characters required for the European language is an important factor. Gutenberg is the first to create pieces of its kind from tin, lead and antimony alloys - and these materials remain standard for 550 years.
For alphabetic scripts, page type settings move faster than woodblock printing. The metal type pieces are more durable and the letters are more uniform, leading to typography and fonts. The high quality and relatively low price of the Gutenberg Bible (1455) establishes the superiority of the movable type in Europe and the use of the printing press is spreading rapidly. The printing press can be regarded as one of the key factors driving the Renaissance and because of its effectiveness, its use spreads throughout the world.
The discovery of the 19th century of hot metal typesetting and its successors caused the species to move downhill in the 20th century.
Video Movable type
Precursors for drivable types
Punch and letter coin
The technique of printing multiple copies of symbols or glyphs with a hard metal type master blow was first developed around 3000 BC in ancient Sumeria. This type of metal punch can be seen as a precursor of a letter blow that was adapted in the next few millennia to be printed with a moveable metal type. Cylindrical seals are used in Mesopotamia to create an impression on the surface by rolling the seals on the wet clay. They are used to "sign" documents and mark objects as belonging to the owner. Cylinder seals are a related form of early typography that can print small page designs with the help of (cameo ) on wax or clay - a miniature rotogravure printing pioneer used by wealthy individuals to seal and validate documents. In 650 BC the ancient Greeks used larger diameter blows to embed a small page image into coins and tokens.
The design of the artists who made the first coin blow was styled with a level of skill that can not be misinterpreted as a general work - a prominent and very specific type designed to be reproduced ad infinitum. Unlike the first typography used to print books in the 13th century, coin types were not combined or printed with ink on paper, but were "published" in more durable metals - and persisted in considerable numbers. As the portable face of the ruling authority, coins are a concise form of standardized knowledge published in a major edition, an early mass media that stabilized trade and civilization throughout the Mediterranean world of antiquity.
Seals and stamps
Seals and stamps may be precursors for movable types. The unbalanced distance from traces of brick stamps found in the cities of Mesopotamia Uruk and Larsa, dating from the 2nd millennium BC, has been suspected by some archaeologists as proof that stamps are made by using a moving type. The Minoan Phaistos Disc mysteriously from 1800-1600 BC has been considered by one scholar as the earliest example of a body of text that is reproduced with reusable characters: it may have been produced by pressing the pre-molded "seal" hieroglyphs into soft clay. Some authors even view the disk as technically meeting all the definition criteria to represent the initial event of moving type printing. It has recently been accused by Jerome Eisenberg that the disk is a forgery.
The Predatory Pronunciation Inscription is a medieval example of moving type stamps used.
Woodblock printing
After the invention of paper in the 2nd century AD during the Han Chinese dynasty, writing materials became more portable and economical than bone, shell, bamboo slip, metal or stone, silk, etc. Previously used. But copying the book by hand still consumes energy. It was not until the Xiping Era (172-178 AD), towards the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty doing print and monotype sealing appeared. It was immediately used to print the design on the fabric, and then to print the text.
The printing of logs, discovered around the 8th century during the Tang Dynasty, works as follows. First, the neatly copied handwriting is taped to a relatively thick and smooth board, with the front of the paper, which is so thin that it is almost transparent, attached to the board, and the characters are displayed in reverse, but clearly, so that each stroke can be easily recognized. Then the engraver cuts parts of the board that are not part of the character, so the character is cut off relief, completely different from the intaglio cut. When printing, prominent characters will have some ink spread on them and covered by paper. With the worker's hands moving behind the paper gently, the characters will be printed on paper. In the Song Dynasty, woodblock printing came to its heyday. Although woodblock printing plays an influential role in the spread of culture, there are still some obvious weaknesses. First, carving a printing plate takes a lot of time, effort and material; second, uncomfortable storing these plates; and finally, it's hard to fix the error.
With woodblock printing, one printing plates can be used for tens of hundreds of books, playing a tremendous role in spreading the culture. But the carving of the plate takes time and energy. The big books take years. The plates require a lot of storage space, and are often damaged due to deformation, worms and corrosion. If the book has a small print, and is not reprinted, the platen will not be anything other than waste; and worse, if an error is found, it is difficult to fix it without wasting the whole plate.
Maps Movable type
History
Ceramic moving type
Bi Sheng (?????) (990-1051) developed the first moving type system known to print in China around 1040 AD during the Northern Song dynasty, using ceramic materials. As explained by Chinese scholar Shen Kuo (??) (1031-1095):
When he wanted to print, he took the iron frame and placed it on an iron plate. In this case he puts those types, close together. When the frame is full, the whole makes one block of a solid type. He then puts it near the fire to warm it up. When the paste [at the back] slightly melted, he took a smooth board and pressed it to the surface, so the block of the type became like a grindstone.
For each character there are several types, and for certain common characters there are twenty or more types each, in order to be ready for repetition of characters on the same page. When a character is not used, he orchestrates it with a paper label, one label for each group of rhymes, and stores it in a wooden box.
If someone prints only two or three copies, this method is not simple and not easy. But to print hundreds or thousands of copies, it's very fast. As a rule he keeps two forms. While the impression is being made of one form, the type is being placed on the other side. When printing one form is complete, the other is ready. In this way, the two forms are changing and printing is done very quickly.
In 1193, Zhou Bida, an officer from the Southern Song Dynasty, created a set of moving clay type methods according to the method described by Shen Kuo in his Dream Pool Essays book, and printed his book Notes from The Jade Hall (??????).
Claims that the Bi Sheng clay type is "brittle" and "impractical for large-scale printing" and "short-lived" are disputed by facts and experiments. Bao Shicheng (1775-1885) writes that the type of moving grilled clay is "as hard and as strong as horns"; experiments show that this type of clay, once baked in an oven, becomes hard and hard to break, so it remains intact after being dropped from a height of two meters to the marble floor. The length of clay type in China is 1 to 2 centimeters, not 2mm, very hard as horn.
There has been an ongoing debate over the success of ceramic printing technology because no printed material has been found with any type of moving ceramics. However, historically recorded it has been used until the end of 1844 in China from the Song dynasty through the Qing dynasty.
Moving type of wood
Bi Sheng (990-1051) also pioneered the use of moving wood types around 1040 AD, as described by Chinese scholar Shen Kuo (1031-1095). However, this technology is abandoned for the sake of the clay-moving type due to the wood grain and the unevenness of the wood species after being soaked in ink.
In 1298, Wang Zhen (????), a Yuan dynasty government official from Jingde County, Anhui Province, China, invented the method of making wood species moving. He made over 30,000 types of displaced wood and printed 100 copies of Jingde County Notes (??????), a book with more than 60,000 Chinese characters. Shortly thereafter, he summarized his findings in his book Methods of making the type of wood that can be moved to print the book . Although the wood type is more durable under mechanical hard handling, reprinting uses the character face down, and its type can only be replaced with newly crafted pieces. The system is then upgraded by pressing wooden beams into sand and casting metal types from depression in copper, bronze, iron or lead. This new method overcomes the many shortcomings of woodblock printing. Instead of carving individual blocks manually to print a single page, movable type printing is allowed for fast assembly of text pages. Furthermore, this new, more compact type of font can be reused and stored. A set of metal stamp types such as wafers can be strung together to form pages, ink, and page impressions taken from rubbings on cloth or paper. In 1322, a Fenghua officer, Ma Chengde (???) in Zhejiang, made 100,000 species of wood moves and printed 43-volume Daxue Yanyi (??????). The types of wood that can be used continue to be used in China. Even up to 1733, a 2,300 volume of Wuying Palace Collected Gems Edition was printed with 253,500 species of wood that could be removed on the orders of Emperor Yongzheng, and finished within a year.
A number of books printed in Tangut script during the Western Xia period (1038-1227) are known, where the Profitable Tantra of the All-Reaching Union found at the Ruins of Baisigou Square Pagoda in 1991 is believed to have been printed occasionally during the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Western Xia (1139-1193). This is considered by many Chinese scholars as the earliest surviving examples of a book printed using a transferable type of wood.
The logistics problem of handling several thousand logographs (required for full literacy in Chinese) poses particular difficulties. It's faster to carve one woodblock per page than composite pages of so many different types. However, if one uses a moving type to generate multiple copies of the same document, the printing speed will increase relative.
The type of metal that can be driven in China
At least 13 material findings in China show the invention of bronze-type printing moving in China no later than the 12th century, with the country producing large-scale bronze plates and official documents issued by Jin (1115-1234) and the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279) with embedded bronze metal types for anti-counterfeit markers. The printing of such banknotes probably dates from the 11th century jiaozi of the Northern Song (960-1127).
A typical example of this type of removable bronze type is that copper block printing is a "check" of the Jin Dynasty with two square holes to attach two bronze-displaced characters, each selected from 1,000 different characters, like every printed paper. notes have different marker combinations. Copies of copper blocks dated between 1215-1216 in the Luo Zhenyu Illustration of Four Dynasty Drawings , 1914, show two special characters - called Ziliao , others are called Zihao - for the purpose of preventing counterfeiting; above Ziliao there is a small character (?) printed with a moving copper type, while above Zihao there is an empty square hole - it seems that the corresponding copper metal is missing. Another example of the Song dynasty during the same period in the Shanghai Museum collection has two empty square holes above Ziliao and Zihou , due to the loss of both. type copper moves. The Song dynasty bronze block embedded with a removable bronze metal type printed banknotes was issued on a large scale and remained in circulation for a long time.
The 1298 book Zao Huozi Yinshufa (??????????????) by the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) Wang Zhen officially mentioned the type of tin moves, used probably since the Song dynasty South (1127-1279), but this is mostly experimental. It is not satisfactory because of its incompatibility with the ink process.
During the Mongol Empire (1206-1405), printing using this type of move spread from China to Central Asia. The Uyghurs in Central Asia used the movable type, the type of text they adopted from Mongol, some with Chinese words printed among the pages - strong evidence that the books were printed in China.
During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), Hua Sui in 1490 used a bronze type in a printed book. In 1574, the massive 1000-volume encyclopedia of the Taiping Era of the Era of Taiping was printed with a moveable bronze type.
In 1725 the Qing dynasty made 250,000 removable characters and scored 64 encyclopedic sets of Gujin Tushu Jicheng (? Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Kol Beginning to Now ). Each set consists of 5,040 volumes, making a total of 322,560 volumes printed using a moving type.
Kind of moving metal in Korea
In 1234 the first books known to have been printed in a set of metal types were published in Goryeo Dynasty Korea. They formed a set of ritual books, Sangjeong Gogeum Yemun , composed by Choe Yun-ui.
While these books have not survived, the world's oldest book printed in a metal moving type is Jikji , printed in Korea in 1377. Asia's Reading Room The Library of Congress in Washington, DC displays examples of this type of metal. Commenting on the discovery of metal types by Korea, the French scholar Henri-Jean Martin described this as "[very similar] to Gutenberg".
Techniques for bronze casting, used when making coins (such as bells and sculptures) are adapted for making metals. The Joseon Seo Hyeon Dynasty (??, 1439-1504) recorded the following description of the Korean cast-casting process:
First, someone cuts the letters in the beech. One fills a trough level with fine sand [clay] from a beach overgrown with weeds. The cut wood letter is pressed into the sand, then the trail becomes negative and forms the letter [mold]. In this step, place one manger along with the other, one pours the molten bronze into the hole. The liquid flows in, filling this negative mold, one by one into a type. Finally, one scratch and file from the irregularities, and stack them to set.
A potential solution to the linguistic and cultural barriers that withstand mobile moves in Korea for 200 years appeared in the early fifteenth century - a generation before Gutenberg would begin working on the invention of his own movable type in Europe - when Sejong the Great designed a simplified alphabet of 24 characters hangul) for use by ordinary people, which could make the process of typecasting and compositing more feasible. But the Korean cultural elite, "shocked by the idea of ​​losing hanja, the badge of their elitism", resisted the adoption of the new alphabet.
"Confucianism's ban on commercialization of printing" also impedes the proliferation of mobile types, limiting the distribution of books produced using new methods to the government. This technique is restricted to use by royal casting only for official state publications, where the focus is on the classical reprint of China that was lost in 1126 when Korean libraries and palaces had disappeared in the conflict between dynasties.
Scientific debate and speculation has taken place, did the Eastern type move to spread to Europe between the late 14th and early 15th centuries.
The type of metal that can be driven in Europe
Johannes Gutenberg of Mainz, Germany is recognized as the first to create a removable metal type printing system in Europe, the printing press. Gutenberg is a goldsmith who is familiar with cutting blow techniques to make coins from molds. Between 1436 and 1450 he developed the hardware and techniques for printing letters of matrices using a tool called handprints. Gutenberg's major inventions and contributions to European mobile printing, handprints, are the first practical means of making the large number of cheap copies of copies required to print complete books, making the moving type printing process a viable enterprise.
Before Gutenberg, the books were copied by hand on rolls and paper, or printed from hand carved wooden blocks. It is very time consuming; even a small booklet can take months to complete, and because the engraved letters or blocks are fragile and wood vulnerable to ink, the blocks have a limited lifetime.
Gutenberg and his colleagues developed oil-based inks suitable for printing by pressing on paper, and first Latin typography. The method of casting of its kind may differ from the handprint used in the next decade. The detailed analysis of the type used in the 42-row Bible has revealed irregularities in some characters that can not be attributed to the spread or the type of ink used under pressure of the press. The researchers suspect that the types of pieces may have been cast from a series of matrices made with a series of individual blow punches, resulting in many different versions of the same flying machine.
It has also been suggested that the method used by Gutenberg involved using a single blow to make a mold, but the mold was such that the process of taking the type out interferes with casting, creating variants and anomalies, and that the punch-matrix system began to be used probably around 1470s. This increases the likelihood that the development of movable types in the West may be progressive rather than a single innovation.
Gutenberg's moving type printing system spread rapidly across Europe, from Mainz's main printing press in 1457-1102 by 1480, 50 of whom were in Italy. Venice quickly became the center of typography and printing. Significant contributions were Nicolas Jenson, Francesco Griffo, Aldus Manutius, and other printers from Europe at the end of the 15th century.
Type-establishment
The co-founder type as performed in Europe and the West consists of three stages.
- Punchcutting
- If the flying machine design includes enclosed spaces (counters), then counterpunch is created. The counter shape is transferred in help (cameo) to the end of the lightweight steel rectangle bar using a special engraving tool called the engraver. Finish counterpunch hardened by heating and cooling (tempering), or exposure to cyanide solution (hardening letters). Counterpunch is then hit at the end of a similar rectangular steel bar - letterpunch - to impress the counter shape as a hidden space (intaglio). The outer profile of the glyph was completed by scraping with the material engraver outside the counter space, leaving only the stroke or line of the glyph. Progress towards the design is checked by sequential smoke evidence ; Temporary molds made of a thin layer of carbon deposited on the surface of the blow by a candle flame. The finished letter blows are finally tightened to withstand the severity of the reproduction in a striking way. One counterpunch and one letterpunch are generated for each letter or glyph that form a complete font.
- Matrix
- Letterpunch is used to beat the soft metal die to create a negative letter print, called a matrix.
- Casting
- The matrix is ​​inserted into the bottom of the device called handprint . The mold is closed and a melt metal alloy composed mostly of lead and tin, with a small amount of antimony for hardening, is poured into the cavity from above. Antimony has a rare property that extends as it cools down, giving it a sharp casting. When the metal type has been sufficiently cooled, the mold is opened and a rectangular block about 4 centimeters long, called sort , is extracted. Excessive redundancies at such ends, called pliers , are then removed to create the exact height range required for printing, known as "type height."
The height of its type is very different in different countries. The Monotype Corporation Limited in London UK produces prints in various altitudes:
- 0.918 inches (23.3 mm): United Kingdom, Canada, USA.
- 0.928 inches (23.6 mm) Ã,: France, Germany, Switzerland and most other European countries
- 0.933 inches (23.7 mm) Ã,: Belgian height
- 0.9785 inches (24.85 mm) Ã,: High Dutch
A Dutch printer manual mentions a small difference between French and German High:
- 62,027 Didot points = 23.30 millimeters (0.917 inches) = height of England
- 62.666 points Didot = 23.55 millimeters (0.927 inches) = French height
- 62.685 points Didot = 23.56 millimeters (0.928 inches) = German height
- 66,047 Didot points = 24.85 millimeters (0.978 inches) = Dutch height
A small difference in height-type will cause a bold image of a character.
By the end of the 19th century there were only two types left in the Netherlands: Johan EnschedÃÆ'Â © & amp; Zonen, in Haarlem, and Lettergieterij Amsterdam, voorheen Tetterode. They both have their own high-type: EnschedÃÆ'Â ©: 65 23/24 points Didot, and Amsterdam: 66 1/24 points Didot. The difference is sufficient to prevent the combined use of fonts from both tipefoundries: Enschede will be light, or otherwise the Amsterdam-font will be printed rather thickly. Perfect way to bind clients.
In 1905 the Dutch government "Algemeene Landsdrukkerij", then: "State-printing" (Staatsdrukkerij) decided during reorganization to use the standard high-type of Didot's 63 points. "Staatdrukkerij-hoogte", is actually the height of Belgium, but this fact is not widely known.
Typesetting
The type of modern factory-produced moves were available at the end of the 19th century. It's held in a printing shop in a work box, a drawer about 2 inches high, a page width, and about two feet long, with lots of small compartments for different letters and ligatures. The most popular and accepted job-case design work in America is the California Jobs Case, which takes its name from the Pacific coastal location from a smelter that makes the case popular.
Traditionally, capital letters are stored in separate drawers or boxes located on top of boxes holding other letters; this is why the capitalized letters are called "capital letters" while the non-capitalized letters are "lowercase".
The compartment also has a spacer, which is a block of an empty type used to separate words and fill in line types, such as em and en quads ( quadrats , or spaces A quadrat is a type block whose face is lower than the printed letter so it does not print itself.). The em space is the width of the capital "M" - the width of height - while the en space is called a half-width space high (usually the dimension for "N" capital).
The individual letters are arranged into words and lines of text with the help of the author's stick, and the entire assemblies are tightly bound to form a drawing page called forme , in which all faces of the letter are exactly the same height to form a flat surface. Forms are mounted on the printing press, a thin layer of applied ink and impressions made on paper under great pressure in the media. "Sort" is a given term for special characters that are not freely available in upper case, such as the "@" sign.
Metal type combined with other methods
It sometimes mistakenly states that printing with metal types replaces the previous method. In the industrial era printing methods will be selected according to the purpose. For example, when printing large-scale fonts in posters etc. This type of metal will prove too heavy and not economically feasible. Thus, the large scale is made as carved wooden blocks as well as ceramic slabs. Also in many cases where large-scale text is needed, it's easier to give the job to a painter than a printer marker. Images can be printed together with the movable type if they are made as woodcarvings or wood carvings as long as blocks are made with the same type of height. If the intaglio method, such as a copper plate, is used for images, then the image and text will require separate printing runs on different machines.
See also
- Printing history in East Asia
- The history of western typography
- Letterpress printing
- Odhecaton - first sheet of music printed with movable types
- Deploy Europe's mobile printing type
- Typing foundry
- Type Settings
References
Further reading
- Nesbitt, Alexander. History and Techniques of Fonts (c) 1957, Dover Publications, Inc. ISBNÃ, 0-486-40281-9, Library Catalog Catalog Catalog Congress: 57-13116. The Dover Edition is a short and corrected reparation of a work originally published in 1950 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. with the title Font: History and Technique Letters as a Design .
- The classic manual of hand-press technology is Moxon, Joseph (1683-84). "Mechanick Training on the Entire Art of Printing" (Ed Herbert Davies & Harry Carter New York: Dover Publications, 1962, reprint.). < span> Ã,
- International Printing Museum Website
External links
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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