Ancient Rome ancient Rome exists throughout almost 1,200 years of the history of Ancient Roman civilization. This term refers to the culture of the Roman Republic, then the Roman Empire, which at its peak covers the area from the Scottish Lowlands and Morocco to Euphrates.
Life in ancient Rome revolves around the city of Rome, its seven famous hills, and its monumental architecture such as the Colosseum, Trajan's Forum, and the Pantheon. The city also has several theaters, gymnasia, and many taverns, baths, and brothels. Throughout the area under the control of ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to rural villas, and in the capital city of Rome, there was an imperial abode on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the palace was said > is downgraded. Most residents live in the city center, packed into insulae (apartment blocks).
The city of Rome was the largest megalopolis of the time, with a population that may have exceeded one million people, with a high estimate of 3.6 million and a low estimate of 450,000. Most of the population under the jurisdiction of this city lives in innumerable city centers, with a population of at least 10,000 and some military settlements, a very high level of urbanization according to pre-industrial standards. The most urban part of the Empire is Italy, which has an estimated urbanization rate of 32%, the same level of British urbanization in 1800. Most Roman cities and towns have the same forum, temple and building type, on a smaller scale, found in Rome. The large urban population needs an endless supply of food, which is a complex logistical task, including obtaining, transporting, storing and distributing food for Rome and other urban centers. Italian farms provide vegetables and fruits, but fish and meat are luxury goods. The water channel was built to bring water to the city centers and wine and oil were imported from Hispania, Gaul and Africa.
There is an enormous amount of trade between the provinces of the Roman Empire, because its transport technology is very efficient. The average cost of transport and technology is comparable to that of the 18th century Europe. The city of Rome later did not fill the space within the ancient walls of Aurelian until after 1870.
The majority of the population under the jurisdiction of ancient Rome lived in rural settlements with fewer than 10 thousand inhabitants. Landlords generally live in towns and their estates left behind in the care of agricultural managers. The fate of rural slaves is generally worse than their counterparts working in urban aristocratic households. To stimulate higher labor productivity, most landlords liberate large numbers of slaves and receive wages; but in some rural areas, poverty and population density are extreme. Rural poverty encouraged population migration to urban centers until the early 2nd century when urban populations ceased to grow and began to decline.
Beginning in the mid-2nd century BC, individual Greek culture increased, despite the criticism of the "softening" effect of Hellenistic culture from conservative moralists. In the time of August, the slaves of the cultured Greek household taught the young Romans (sometimes even girls); chefs, decorators, secretaries, doctors, and hairdressers all come from the East of Greece. Greek sculptures adorn the Hellenistic landscape of gardening in the Palatine or in the villas, or imitated in Roman carvings by Greek slaves. The Roman cuisine preserved in the cookbooks considered to be derived from Apicius is essentially Greek. The Roman writers despised Latin for the cultured Greek style. Only in law and government is the Italic nature of the highest accretive culture of Rome.
Against this human background, both urban and rural settings, one of the most influential civilizations in history, have left a cultural heritage that survives part of today.
The Roman Empire, at its peak (c.117 CE), was the broadest political and social structure in western civilization. In 285, the empire had grown too large to be ruled from the central government in Rome so that it was divided by Emperor Diocletian into the Western and Eastern Empires. The Roman Empire began when Augustus Caesar became the first Roman emperor (31 BC) and ended, in the west, when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was overthrown by King Odoacer of Germany (476 CE). In the east, it continued as the Byzantine Empire until the death of Constantine XI and the fall of Constantinople to Ottoman Turks in 1453 AD. The influence of the Roman Empire on Western civilization is deeply in its lasting contribution to almost every aspect of western culture.
Video Culture of ancient Rome
Social structure
The earliest center of social structure, dating from the time of the agricultural tribal country, is a family, which is not only characterized by blood relations but also by legally established patria potestas relationships. The Father's family is the absolute head of the family; he is the master of his wife (if he is given to him cum manu, if the father of the wife retains the patria potestas), his children, the wives of his son (again if married cum manu less often towards the end of the Republic), nephews, slaves and free people (slaves freed, first generation still legally lower than freeborn), throw them and their goods at will, even allowing them to be put to death.
Slavery and slaves are part of the social order. The slaves are mostly prisoners of war. There is a slave market where they can be bought and sold. Roman law is inconsistent about the status of slaves, except that they are considered like other moving properties. Many slaves are freed by employers for good services provided; some slaves can save money to buy their freedom. Generally mutilations and slave killings are prohibited by law, although extreme cruelty continues.
Apart from these families (called
The authority of the pater family is not limited, both in civil rights and in criminal law. The king's duty was to become the military chief, to deal with foreign policy and also to decide the controversy among the nobles. The nobles are divided into three tribes (Ramnenses, Titientes, Luceres).
During the time of the Roman Republic (founded in 509 BC) Roman citizens were allowed to vote. These include the patricians and the Plebians. Women, slaves, and children are not allowed to vote.
There are two assemblies, centuries-old assembly (comitia centuriata) and tribal assemblies ( comitia tributa ), consisting of all citizens of Rome. In the comitia centuriata the Romans are divided according to age, wealth and residence. Residents in each tribe are divided into five classes by property and then each group is divided into two centuries by age. Overall, there are 373 centuries. Like a tribal assembly, every century has one vote. Comitia Centuriata selects praetors (judges of justice), censors, and consuls.
The comitia tributa consists of thirty-five tribes from Rome and the country. Each tribe has one vote. Comitia Tributa chose Quaestors (financial judge) and patrician Curule Aedile.
Over time, Roman law developed rapidly, as did the social outlook, liberating family members. Justice also increased rapidly. The Romans became more efficient in considering law and punishment.
Life in ancient Roman cities revolves around the Forum, the central business district, where most Romans would go for marketing, shopping, commerce, banking, and to participate in celebrations and ceremonies. The forum is also a place where orators will express themselves to shape public opinion, and gain support for any particular issue that interests them or others. Before sunrise, children will go to school or home teaching will begin. Elders will dress, breakfast at 11, nap and evening or evening will usually go to the Forum. Going to a public bath at least once a day is a habit with most of the Roman citizens. There is a separate bath for both men and women. The main difference is that women's baths are smaller than men, and do not have a frigidarium (cold room) or palaestra (exercise area).
A variety of outdoor and indoor entertainment, free of charge, available in ancient Rome. Depending on the nature of events, they are scheduled during the day, late afternoon, evening, or late at night. Large crowds gather at the Colosseum to watch shows such as gladiators, fighting among men, or fighting between men and wild animals. Circus Maximus is used for horse cart racing.
Life in the countryside is very slow but lively, with many local festivals and social events. Farms are managed by agricultural managers, but plantation owners will occasionally take retreats to the countryside to rest, enjoy the splendor of nature and sunshine, including activities such as fishing, hunting and horseback riding. On the other hand, forced labor continues for hours and days, and ensures comfort and creates wealth for their master. The owner of the garden is on average better, spending the night in economic and social interactions in the village market. The day ends with a meal, generally left over from daytime preparation.
Clothing
Many types of toga are also named. Boys, up to the Liberalia festival, wearing a pre-dressing toga, which is a toga with a red or purple border, is also worn by judges in the office. The toga virilis , (or temple toga ) or male toga is worn by men over the age of 16 to show their citizenship in Rome. The toga picta is used by the ruling generals and has their skill embroidered on the battlefield. The toga pulla is worn during mourning.
Even footwear indicates a person's social status. Patricus people wear red and orange sandals, senators have brown footwear, consul has white shoes, and soldiers wears heavy boots. Women wear colored shoes such as white, yellow, or green.
Men usually wear a toga, and women wear stoles.
Women stoles are dresses worn over the tunic, and are usually brightly colored. A fibula (or brooch) will be used as an ornament or to hold the stole in place. A palla , or a scarf, often worn with stole .
Food
From the beginning of the Republic to 200 BC, the ancient Romans had very simple eating habits. Simple food is generally consumed around 11 o'clock, and consists of breads, salads, olives, cheeses, fruits, nuts, and cold meats left over from dinner the night before. Breakfast is called ientaculum , lunch is prandium , and dinner is called cena . The appetizers are called gustatio , and the dessert is called a lacoste (or a second table) . Usually, take a nap or break following this.
The family ate together, sitting on a bench around the table. Then, a separate dining room with a designed dining sofa, called triclinium . Fingers are used to pick up food prepared beforehand and brought to visitors. Spoon used for soup.
Wine in Rome did not become common or mass-produced until about 250 BC. It is more often produced around the time of Cato Elder which mentions in his De Agri Cultura that vineyards are the most important aspect of a good farm. Wine is considered a staple drink, consumed in all meals and events by all classes and reasonably priced; However, it is always mixed with water. This is the case even during an explicit evening drinking event ( comissatio ) where an important part of the party is choosing a bibender arbiter (a Drug Judge) who, inter alia, is responsible for deciding the ratio of wine to water in wine to drink. 1: 2, 1: 3, or 1: 4 wines to commonly used. Many types of beverages involving wine and honey are also consumed. Mulsum is a sweet wine, mustum is grape juice, mulch is honey water. Per-person-consumption of wine per day in the city of Rome has been estimated to be 0.8 to 1.1 gallons for men, and about 0.5 gallons for women. Even the famed Cato the Elder recommends the distribution of low-quality daily rations of more than 0.5 gallons of wine among slaves forced to work in the fields.
Drinking wine that is not doused on an empty stomach is considered a nonsense and a sure sign of alcoholism whose debilitating physical and psychological effects have been recognized in ancient Rome. An accurate allegation of becoming an alcoholic - in a gossip-crazy city society is bound to unfold and easily verified - is a favorite and destructive way to discredit political opponents employed by some of Rome's greatest orators such as Cicero and Julius Caesar. Roman alcoholic drinkers include Mark Antony, Cicero's own son Marcus (Cicero Minor) and Tiberius Claudius Nero's emperor whose soldiers gave him an unattractive nickname Biberius Caldius Mero (pure wine, Sueton Tib 42.1). Cato the Younger is also known as a heavy drinker, often found stumbling on disorientated homes and which is worse for use in the early hours of the morning by fellow citizens.
During the Empire period, the staple food of the lower Romans (plebeian) was a pulp of vegetables and bread, and sometimes fish, meat, olives and fruits. Sometimes, subsidized or free food is distributed in cities. The aristocracy has an elaborate dinner, with parties and wine and various kinds of food. Sometimes, dancing girls will entertain the visitors. Women and children eat separately, but in the later Empire period, with permissives crawling in, even decent women will attend such dinner parties.
Education
Schools in a more formal sense began around 200 BC. Education begins at about six years, and in the next six to seven years, boys and girls are expected to learn the basics of reading, writing and arithmetic. At the age of twelve, they will learn Latin, Greek, grammar and literature, followed by training to speak in public. The oratory is an art that must be practiced and learned and a good orator commands respect; being an effective orator is one of the goals of education and learning. Poor children can not afford the cost of education. In some cases, talented slave services are used to instill education. School is mostly for boys, but some rich girls are taught at home, but sometimes can go to school.
Maps Culture of ancient Rome
Language
The native language of the Romans is Latin, the Italic language in the Indo-European family. Some forms of Latin exist, and language evolves rapidly over time, eventually becoming the Romance language spoken today.
Initially a very inflexional and synthetic language, older Latin forms rely little on word order, conveying meaning through the affixed system attached to the word stem. Like other Indo-European languages, Latin gradually becomes much more analytic over time and obtains word orders of convention as it loses its case and inflection related systems. The alphabet, the Latin alphabet, is based on the Ancient Italic alphabet, which in turn comes from the Greek alphabet. The Latin alphabet is still used today to write most of Europe and many other languages.
Most of the living Latin literature is almost entirely composed of Classical Latin. In the eastern part of the Roman Empire, which became the Byzantine Empire; The Greek language is the main lingua franca as it was from the time of Alexander the Great, while Latin was mostly used by the Roman government and its army. Finally, Greek would replace Latin as the official spoken and written language of the Eastern Roman Empire, while the various Latin Vulgar dialects used in the Western Roman Empire evolved into modern-day Romans that are still in use today.
The expansion of the Roman Empire spread throughout Latin Europe, and over time the Latin Vulgares evolved and dialectically in different locations, gradually shifting to a number of different Roman languages ​​that began around the 9th century. Many of these languages, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, and Spanish, grew, the difference between them grew over time.
Although English is more Germanic than Romanic - Britannia is a Roman province, but the Roman presence in England has disappeared effectively at the time of the Anglo-Saxon invasion - the current English language borrows heavily from Latin and Latin words. Old British borrowing is relatively rare and is largely derived from the ecclesiastical use after the British Christianization. When William the Conqueror invaded England from Normandy in 1066, he brought a large number of French-speaking followers of Anglo-Norman, a Latin language derived from Latin. Anglo-Norman French has remained a top-class English language for centuries, and the number of Latin words in the English language has grown substantially through borrowing during this Middle England period. Recently, during the period of Modern England, the revival of interest in classical culture during the Renaissance led to many conscious adaptations of words from Classical Latin writers into English.
Roman literature from the very beginning was heavily influenced by the Greek writers. Some of the earliest works found today are historical epics that recount the early history of the Roman military. As the Republic expanded, the author began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy.
The Greeks and Romans established history, and had a profound influence on the way history is written today. Cato the Elder was a Roman senator, as well as the first person to write history in Latin. Although theoretically opposed to Greek influence, Cato the Elder wrote the first Greek inspired Greek rhetoric (91), and combines Greek and Roman history into a method that combines the two. One of the great historical achievements of Cato the Elder is the Origines , which tells the story of Rome, from Aeneas to its time, but this document is now lost. In the second century and early first century BC efforts were made, led by Cato the Elder, to use preserved records and traditions, to reconstruct the whole. Rome's past. Historians involved in this task are often referred to as "Annalists", implying that their writings are more or less following chronological order. In 123 BC and an official effort was made to give the entire record of Roman history. This work fills eighty books and is known as Annales Maximi . The composition records the official events of the State, such as elections and orders, civilian, provincial and sectarian businesses, defined in formal arrangements from year to year. During the reign of the early emperors of Rome there was a golden age of historical literature. Occasions like Tacitus' 'Histories',' Gallic War 'by Julius Caesar and Livy's' History of Rome' have been passed down from generation to generation. Unfortunately, in Livy's case, most of the manuscripts have been lost and left with some specific areas: the establishment of the city, the war with Hannibal, and the consequences.
In the ancient world, poetry usually plays a much more important part of everyday life than today. Generally speaking, educated Greeks and Romans regard poetry as a much more basic part of life than in modern times. Initially in Rome poetry was not considered a suitable job for important citizens, but attitude changed in the second and first century BC. In Rome the poems are far ahead of prose writing at this time. As Aristotle points out, poetry is the first kind of scholar to arouse people's interest in style problems. The importance of poetry in the Roman Empire was so strong that Quintilian, the greatest authority in education, wanted a secondary school to focus on reading and teaching poetry, leaving the prose text for what would now be called the university stage. Virgil represents the apex of Roman epic poetry. His Aeneid was produced at the request of Maecenas and told the story of Aeneas flight from Troy and his settlement from the city to be Rome. Lucretius, in his book On The Nature of Things, tries to explain science in an epic poem. Some of his knowledge seems to be very modern, but other ideas, especially his theory of light, are no longer acceptable. Then Ovid produces his Metamorphoses , written in the dactylic hexameter stanza, the epic meter, trying the complete mythology of the earth's creation into its own time. He united his subject through the theme of metamorphosis. It has been noted in classical times that the work of Ovid does not have the
Catullus and the neoteric group of related poets produced poetry following the Alexandrian model, which experimented with forms of poetry that challenged tradition. Catullus was also the first Roman poet to produce a poem of love, which appeared to be an autobiography, depicting an affair with a woman named Lesbia. Under the reign of Caesar Augustus, Horace continued the tradition of short poetry, with Odes and his Epodes. Martial, writing under Emperor Domitian, is a well-known epigram writer, a poet who is often rude and critical of the public.
The Roman prose develops the independence, dignity, and rhythm of a persuasive speech. Rhetoric has been the key to many great achievements in Athens, so after studying the Greeks, Rome rated speeches as subjects and professions. Written speeches are some of the first forms of prose written in ancient Rome, and other forms of prose writing in the future are influenced by this. Sixteen Cicero letters have survived, all published by Cicero after his death by his secretary, Tito. letters give a glance at social life in the days of fallen republics, giving pictures of the personality of this age. Cicero's letters are vast and varied, and give pictures of personality in this day and age. Cicero's most obvious personality is revealed, appearing as a hollow and arrogant person. Cicero's passion for the public life of the capital also emerged from his letters, most clearly when he was in exile and when he took the provincial governor of Asia Minor. The letters also contained much about the life of the Cicero family, and its political and financial complications.
Roman philosophical treatises had a major influence on the world, but the original idea came from Greece. The writings of Roman philosophy are rooted in four 'schools' from Hellenistic Greek times. The four 'schools' are Epicurean, Stocis, Peripatetics, and Academy. Epidemiologists believe in the guidance of the senses, and identify the highest purpose of life to be happiness, or the absence of pain. Stoicism was founded by Zeno of Citium, who taught that virtue is the highest good, creating a new sense of ethical urgency. Perpatetics is a follower of Aristotle, guided by his science and philosophy. The Academy was founded by Plato and is based on the Skeptic Pyro idea that real knowledge can be obtained. The Academy also presents a critique of Epicurean and Stoic philosophical flows.
The satire genre is traditionally regarded as Roman innovation, and the satire is written by, inter alia, Juvenal and Persius. Some of the most popular dramas of the early Republic were comedy, especially from Terence, a liberated Roman slave who was arrested during the First Punis War.
Most of the literary works produced by Roman writers in the early Republic were political or satirical. The rhetorical works of Cicero, a prominent linguist, translator, and philosopher, in particular, are very popular. In addition, Cicero's personal letters are regarded as one of the best corrupt correspondences recorded in ancient times.
Visual art
Most of the early Roman painting styles showed Etruscan influence, especially in the practice of political painting. In the 3rd century BC, Greek art was taken as booty from the war became popular, and many Roman houses were adorned with views by Greek artists. The evidence of the remains in Pompeii shows the diverse influence of the culture that stretches across the Roman world.
An ancient Roman style note is "Incrustation", where the interior walls of a house are painted to resemble colored marble. Another style consists of interior painting as an open landscape, with very detailed scenes about plants, animals, and buildings.
The portrait sculpture during this period was exploited by young and classical, then developed into a mixture of realism and idealism. During the Antonine and Severan period, more ornate and bearded hair became prevalent, made by cutting and drilling deeper. Progress was also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting Roman victory.
Music
Music is a major part of everyday life in ancient Rome. Many private and public events are accompanied by music, from dinner to military parades and maneuvers. In the discussion of ancient music, however, non-specialists and even many musicians should be reminded that much of what makes our modern music familiar to us is the result of developments in just the last 1000 years; thus, our ideas about melody, scale, harmony, and even the instruments we use will not be familiar to the Romans who created and listened to music centuries before.
Some of the instruments used in Roman music are Tuba, Cornu, Aulos, Askaules, Flute, Panpipes, Lyre, Lute, Cithara, Timpani, Aulos, Auloi, Drum, Hydraulis and Sistrum.
Architecture
In the early stages, ancient Roman architecture reflects elements of Etruscans and Greek architectural styles. Over a period of time, styles were modified according to their urban requirements, and civil engineering and building construction technologies became developed and refined. Roman concrete remains a puzzle, and even after more than two thousand years, some ancient Roman structures still stand magnificently, like the Pantheon (with one of the largest bachelors dome in the world) located in the business district of Rome today.
The architectural style of the ancient capital of Rome was imitated by other urban centers under Roman control and influence, such as Arena Verona, Verona, Italy; Hadrian's Arch, Athens, Greece; Hadrian's Temple, Ephesus, Turkey; Theater in Orange, France; and in some other locations, for example, Lepcis Magna, located in Libya. Roman cities are well-planned, efficiently managed and well-groomed. The palace, private residences and villas, are designed with elaborate and comprehensive city planning with provisions for different activities by urban dwellers, and for countless migrating populations of tourists, traders and visitors passing through their cities. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a treatise of the 1st century Roman architect "De architectura," with various parts, dealing with urban planning, building materials, temple construction, public and private buildings, and hydraulics, remains classical texts until the Renaissance.
Sports and entertainment
The ancient city of Rome has a place called Campus, a kind of training ground for Roman soldiers, located near the Tiber. Later, the Campus became an arena and playing field in Rome, which even Julius Caesar and Augustus reputedly frequented. Imitating the Campus in Rome, similar reasons developed in several urban centers and other military settlements.
On campus, the youth gather to play, exercise, and enjoy the right sport, including jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing. Riding, throwing, and swimming are also preferable to physical activity. In the countryside, hobbies also include fishing and hunting. Women do not participate in this activity. Playing the ball is a popular sport and the ancient Romans have several ball games, including Handball (Expulsim Ludere), field hockey, catch, and some form of Football.
Board games played in ancient Rome include dice (Tesserae or rope), Roman chess (Latrunculi), Roman Checkers (Calculi), tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli), and ludus duodecim scriptorum and tabula, backgammon predecessors.
There are other activities to keep people engaged like racing, music and theatrics, public executions, and gladiator battles. In the Colosseum, the Roman amphitheater, 60,000 people can be accommodated. There are also reports about the flooded Colosseum floors to hold artificial sea battles for public viewing.
In addition, the Romans also spent their time in bars and brothels, and the graffiti carved on the walls of these buildings was common. Based on the number of messages found in bars, brothels, and bath houses, it is clear that it is a popular recreational place and people spend a lot of time there.
Religion
The Romans considered themselves highly religious, and attributed their success as a world power to their collective piety (pietas) in maintaining good relationship with God. According to legendary history, most of the religious institutions of Rome can be traced to its founders, especially Numa Pompilius, the second Sabine King of Sabine, who negotiated directly with the Gods. This ancient religion is the foundation of the mosque maiorum, the "ancestral path" or "tradition", regarded as the center of Roman identity.
Public religious priesthood is held by members of the elite class. There is no principle analogous to the "separation of church and state" in ancient Rome. During the Roman Republic (509-27 BC), the same people elected as public officials served as representatives and popes. Pastors marry, raise families, and lead active political life. Julius Caesar became Pontifex Maximus before he was elected consul. The great scholars read the will of the Gods and supervised the marking of borders as a reflection of the universal order, thus approving Roman expansion as a matter of divine destiny. The Roman victory at its core is a religious process in which the winning general demonstrates his piety and willingness to serve the public good by dedicating some of his spoils to the Gods, especially Jupiter, who is manifested only in power. As a result of the Punist War (264-146 BC), as Rome struggled to establish itself as a dominant force, many new temples were built by judges to fulfill oaths to a god to ensure their military success.
Roman religion is thus very pragmatic and contractual, based on the principle of do ut des , "I give you what you may give." Religion depends on the knowledge and practice of prayer, ritual, and true sacrifice, not on belief or dogma, though Latin literature maintains the speculations learned about the divine nature and its relation to human affairs. Even the most skeptical among the Roman intellectual elite like Cicero, who is a queen, sees religion as the source of the social order.
For ordinary Romans, religion is part of everyday life. Each house has a household where prayer and offerings for the domestic gods of the family are offered. Sacred places and sacred places like springs and bushes adorn the city. The Roman calendar is based on religious observations. In the Imperial Era, 135 days of the year is devoted to religious festivals and games ( ludi) . Women, slaves, and children all participated in various religious activities. Some public rituals can only be performed by women, and women form what is probably the most famous Roman priesthood, the state-backed Vestal Virgins, who have maintained the sacred hearth of Rome for centuries, until it was dissolved under Christian domination.
The Romans were known for the large number of deities whom they respected. The presence of the Greeks in the Italian peninsula from the beginning of the period of history influenced Roman culture, introducing some of the religious practices that became the basis of the Apollo cult. The Romans sought a similarity between their main gods and the Greeks, adapting Greek myths and iconography to Latin literature and Roman art. Etruscan religion is also a major influence, especially on augury practice, since Rome was once ruled by Etruscans.
The mystery religions imported from the Near East (Ptolemy of Egypt, Persia and Mesopotamia), offering the salvation of initiates through personal God and eternal life after death, are a matter of personal preference for an individual, practiced in addition to running family rites and participating in public religion. The mystery, however, involves exclusive oaths and secrecy, a condition that Roman conservative views with suspicion as a characteristic of "magic", conspiracy (coniuratio), and subversive activity. Sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress clerics who seemed to threaten traditional morality and Roman unity, such as the senate attempts to limit Bacchanals in 186 BC.
As the Romans expanded their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world, their policy in general was to absorb the gods and cults of others rather than trying to eradicate them, because they believed that preserving the tradition of promoting social stability.
Immediately after the collapse of the Republic, State religion has adapted to support the new regime of the Emperors. Augustus, the first Roman emperor, justified the novelty of one-man rule with a great program of religious revivalism and reform. The public oath previously made for the security of the Republic is now directed at the welfare of the Emperor. The so-called "Caesar worship" was expanded on a large scale Roman ancient worship of the dead ancestor and of the Genius , the divine protector of every individual. The imperial cult became one of the main ways Rome advertise its presence in the provinces and instill a shared cultural and loyal identity throughout the Empire: the rejection of the religion of the State is tantamount to treason. This is the context of Roman conflict with Christianity, which by various circles the Romans regarded as a form of atheism and a threat to the stability of the Empire, which led to the prosecution of anti-Christian policies; under the reign of Emperor Trajan (98-117 CE), Roman intellectuals and functionaries (Lucian of Samosata, Tacitus, Suetonius, Pliny the Younger, and Celsus) gained knowledge of the Jewish roots of Early Christianity, therefore many of them considered Christianity as some sort of superstitio Iudaica .
From the second century onwards, the Fathers of the Church began to condemn the various religions practiced throughout the Empire collectively as "Pagans". At the beginning of the 4th century, Constantine the Great and his half-brother, Licinius, established an agreement known as the Milan Decree (313), which granted freedom to all religions to be practiced freely in the Roman Empire; following Edik's declaration, the conflict between the two Emperors was exacerbated, ending with the execution of both Licinius and Emperor Emperor Sextus Martinianus as ordered by Constantine after the defeat of Licinius in the Battle of Chrysopolis (324).
Constantine ruled the Roman Empire as the sole emperor for the rest of his reign. Some scholars claim that the ultimate goal is to get unanimous approval and surrender to its authority from all classes, and therefore choose Christianity to carry out its political propaganda, believing that it is the most appropriate religion that can fit the Imperial cult (see also Sol Invictus). Regardless, under the reign of Constantine, Christianity flourished throughout the Empire, launching an era of Christian Church domination under the Constantine dynasty. However, if Constantine himself sincerely converted to Christianity or remained faithful to Paganism it was still a debate between scholars (see also Constantine's religious policy). His official conversion to Christianity in 312 was almost universally recognized among historians, although he was baptized only on his deathbed by bishop Arian Eusebius of Nicomedia (337); the real reason behind it remains unknown and debatable as well. According to Hans Pohlsander, Professor Emeritus of History at the University in Albany, SUNY, Constantine's conversion was just another realistic instrument in his hand that was meant to serve his political interests in keeping the Empire united under his control:
The prevailing spirit of the reign of Constantine was one of conservatorism. His conversion and support for Christianity resulted in fewer innovations than previously thought; indeed they serve a completely conservative end, the preservation and continuation of the Empire.
The Emperor and the Neoplatonist philosopher Julian the Apostate made a brief attempt to restore the traditional religion and Paganism, and to reaffirm the special status of Judaism, but in 391, under Theodosius I, Nicea Christians became the official church of the Roman Empire State to rule out all Christian churches and religions Other Hellenistic, including the Roman religion itself. Pleas for religious tolerance from traditionalists like senator Symmachus (d. 402) were rejected, and Christian monotheism became a feature of Imperial domination. Both heretics and non-Christians must be excommunicated from public life or persecution, but, despite the decline of Greco-Roman polytheism, the religious hierarchy of Rome and its various ritual aspects affect Christianity as a whole; various beliefs and pre-Christian practices survive also in Christian festivals and local traditions.
Philosophy
The two main philosophical schools of thought that stem from the Greek religion and philosophy that became prominent in Rome in the 1st and 2nd centuries were Cynicism and Stoicism which, according to Cora Lutz "joined quite well" in the early years of the Roman Empire. Cynicism teaches that civilization is corrupt and people need to escape from it and its traps and Stoicism teaches that one must surrender all worldly goods by remaining separate from civilization and helping others. Because of their negative views of their civilization and their way of life, where many of them were only wearing dirty robes, carrying staff, and coin purses, and sleeping outside, they were the target of the Roman aristocracy and the emperor and many were persecuted by the Roman government for " subversive". The Lucian philosopher attacked Cynics in his book "The Philosophies for Sale" where he mocked the Cynics by declaring "First... disarming you... I'll put a cloak on you... Next I'll force you to have pain and trouble, sleep in land, no drinking anything but water... Leading this life You will say that you are happier than the Great King... It often becomes the most crowded market... and in [it] the desire to be solitary and not communicative... "
See also
- Ancient Rome
- Classic ancient
- Gallo-Roman culture
- Mos maiorum
- The Roman Empire
- Romanization
- Romanization of Hispania
- Sexuality in ancient Rome
- Social class in ancient Rome
- Ancient Roman Theater
- Roman graffiti
References
Bibliography
- Elizabeth S. Cohen, Honor and Gender in the Way of Early Modern Rome , The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 22, No. 4 (Spring, 1992), p. 597-625
- Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
- Tom Holland, Last Year of the Roman Republic ISBNÃ, 0-385-50313-X
- Ramsay MacMullen, 2000. Romanization in the Time of August (Yale Press University)
- Paul Veyne, editor, 1992. History of Personal Life: I'm From Pagan Rome to Byzantium (Belknap Press from Harvard University Press)
- Karl Wilhelm Weeber, 2008. Nachtleben im Alten Rom (Primusverlag)
- Karl Wilhelm Weeber, 2005. Die Weinkultur der RÃÆ'¶mer
- J.H. D'Arms, 1995. Heavy and drunk drinks in the Roman world , in O.Murray In Vino Veritas
External links
- Interactive Roman Map
- Rome Reborn - Video Tour through Ancient Rome based on digital model
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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